Concatenative topics
Concatenative meta
Other languages
Meta
Let's consider these conceputal data structures:
Nothing out of the ordinary, right ?
An indexable deque which is optimal in space and time [3].
This is simply a O(sqrtN) array of O(sqrtN) sub-arrays.
Two lists of arrays are maintained, small and big (twice bigger)
Also, pointers to head/tail indexes, and the big/small separation are maintained.
Conceptually, the virtual array is the concatenation of all small sub-arrays followed by the big sub-arrays, and indexed between head/tail.
All operations are straightforward. In order to maintain the global invariants, small sub-arrays are sometimes merged into big arrays, or big arrays are split into small arrays (this happens at the boundary between the two lists). when one of both lists is empty, lists are swapped (big arrays become small and vice-versa)
Asymptotic complexity:
This is implemented by growing the integer range of sub-arrays dynamically when an update overflows. It makes updates O(sqrtN) worst case (O(1) amortized if O(N) numbers take O(lgM) bits).
Asymptotic complexity:
Monolithic lists are lists stored without any managed pointers, in a flat array. Each node in the list is identified by a number in [1..N]. 0 is the head and -1 the tail. Insertion allocates nodes, removal reclaims them. Because the links are xor-coded, two consecutive nodes are needed to form a cursor. given a cursor, you can query the list for the next or previous element. To store values at each node, you can simply use node identifiers to index a [1..N] array. This makes cache behavior even worse, but it doesn't matter much, as indexing lists is slow anyway.
note: unrolled lists are isomorphic to lists of arrays. they offer no improvement.
Asymptotic complexity:
A succinct data structure has space usage close to the information theoretic lower bound.
In essence, a list is isomorphic to an Hamiltonian cycle in a complete graph of n nodes. There are O(N!) such cycles.
Thus at least lg(N!) + o(N) bits are needed to encode a list. This gives us NlgN + o(N) as a lower bound.
Succinct lists achieve this lower bound (tightly) and can still operate efficiently. To achieve this, succinct lists are simply monolithic lists stored in the previously defined compact integer arrays.
Asymptotic complexity:
Split hashtables are a variation of cuckoo hashing, that doesn't move anything around.
In essence, this structure is a pair of arrays of lists of key/value pairs. Lookup is done by splitting the hash of the key in two, using this pair to index the arrays, and then search each list for the key. The twist is that insertion is always in the shortest list. Surprisingly, that gives us an information-theoretic advantage that reduces the expected worst case list length significantly [4]. This works so well that it's a waste of time to make any effort to move elements around (as in cuckoo hashing). Also, the structure can achieve near 100 load efficiently.
Of course, to get the good performance, some tweaks can make the difference.
For space usage: If possible, lists are inlined in the tables. (there are two words to accomodate for a key/value pair per position). When needed full lists are stored as arrays. Full lists have very low expectation, so they are not important. The effort to recover inlined lists is to scan a single cache line in each table.
For speed: The most critical operation for an unordered set is to answer queries. This is divided into three stages in split hashtables:
Insertions and removal are performed with a variant of query that returns the key/value pair by reference.
Allocation has many possibilities: allocating full lists, growing tables, or even swapping values around (like cuckoo hashing) to achieve better results.
A load of 50 gives expected performance similar to cuckoo hashes, as the short inline path will miss with very low probability. Very high loads (near 100) can be achieved as the saturation of inlined lists has very low probability (on the order of 1 for millions of elements, grows in lglgN).
Asymptotic complexity:
load factor fast path hit rate[ arrays with good random insertion/removal and lookup speed ]
[ boring ordered maps. we can't beat lgN with comparison order. very fast insertion/removal/balancing, very compact. ]
[ ordered map in a flat array with some bubbles. funny but not really competitive. B+ trees are boring ]
[ sparse array optimized for maximum speed within a space budget, with speculative relayout to match opportunities in density ]
[ ordered map over a finite universe. lglgN search ]
[ space efficient van Emde Boas trees ]
[ O(1) ordered maps with a weak ordering on keys ]
[ basic red-black trees with full persistence in O(1) space per update ]
[1] J. R. Driscoll, N. Sarnak, D. D. Sleator, R. E. Tarjan. Making data structures persistent. Journal of Computer and System Sciences. Volume 38, Issue 1, February 1989.
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sleator/papers/making-data-structures-persistent.pdf
[2] P. F. Dietz. Fully Persistent Arrays (Extended Array). Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 382, 1989
https://gummo.lib.rochester.edu/retrieve/14496/tr%23290.pdf
[3] A. Brodnik, S. Carlsson, E. D. Demaine, J. I. Munro, and R. Sedgewick. Resizable arrays in optimal time and space. Technical Report CS-99-09, U. Waterloo, 1999.
http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~imunro/resize.ps
[4] M. Mitzenmacher. The power of two choices in randomized load balancing. Parallel and Distributed Systems, IEEE Transactions on. Volume 12, Issue 10, Oct 2001
http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~michaelm/postscripts/mythesis.pdf
This revision created on Thu, 11 Dec 2008 06:27:18 by prunedtree